Dizziness is a common and often untreated symptom in the general population. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a combined cognitive-behavioral/vestibular rehabilitation (VR) program, using a randomized control design. A total of 29 participants were randomized to treatment consisting of psychoeducation, vestibular exercises, relaxation and cognitive interventions, or to serve as waiting list controls. Measures of dizziness-related handicap, dizziness-provoking movements, and daily diary registrations of dizziness symptoms at pre- and post-treatment showed statistically significant improvements in many domains, which translated to moderate effect sizes. These findings provide preliminary support for the combination of Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and VR methods in the treatment of dizziness.

Cognitive mechanisms have been proposed to play an important role in tinnitus. In the present study, tinnitus participants were administered an emotional Stroop test via the Internet, incorporating words related to tinnitus concerns. In line with previous research using this Web-based version of the emotional Stroop test, faster colour naming was demonstrated for concern-relevant words relative to neutral words. The present results thus provided supported for a role of cognitive factors that are important for the understanding of tinnitus. However, future research is warranted in order to clarify the precise mechanisms involved in tinnitus-related Stroop effects.

Background: Guided internet-delivered cognitive behavior therapy (ICBT) has been tested in several trials on social anxiety disorder (SAD) with moderate to large effects. The aims of this study were threefold. First, to compare the effects of ICBT including online discussion forum with a moderated online discussion forum only. Second, to investigate if knowledge about SAD increased following treatment and third to compare the effects of inexperienced versus experienced therapists on patient outcomes. Methods: A total of 204 participants with a primary diagnosis of SAD were included and randomized to either guided ICBT or the control condition. ICBT consisted of a 9-week treatment program which was guided by either psychology students at MSc level (n=6) or by licensed psychologists with previous experience of ICBT (n=7). A knowledge test dealing with social anxiety was administered before and after treatment. Measures of social anxiety and secondary outcomes dealing with general anxiety, depression, and quality of life were administered before and after treatment. In addition, a 1-year follow-up was conducted on the treated individuals. Results: Immediately following treatment, the ICBT group showed superior outcome on the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale self-report version with a between group posttreatment Hedges g effect size of g=0.75. In addition, significant differences on all the secondary outcomes were observed. Gains were well maintained one year later. Knowledge, as assessed by the knowledge test, increased following treatment with little gain in the control group. Therapist experience did not result in different outcomes, but experienced therapists logged in less frequently compared to the inexperienced therapists, suggesting that they needed less time to support patients. Discussion: We conclude that guided ICBT reduce symptoms of SAD, increase knowledge about SAD and that therapist experience does not make a difference apart from the finding that experienced therapist may require less time to guide patients.

The relation between tinnitus and short-term memory performance in varying background sounds is not well understood. In the present study a sample of 18 persons with tinnitus completed a serial recall test in three conditions, silence, masking and intermittent masking. The performance of a matched control group without tinnitus was also investigated. Based on the literature on the "irrelevant sound effect" we expected that the tinnitus group would perform worse during intermittent masking and that they would score lower overall compared to the control group. Results revealed no statistically significant differences between the groups, nor any group interaction within sound conditions for the serial recall test. Groups did however differ regarding subjective measures of concentration problems, anxiety and depression. Results are discussed in relation to thought suppression and distraction from tinnitus.

Objective: This study aimed to describe the consequences of acoustic neuroma surgery in terms of symptoms and quality of life. Study Design: This study was a retrospective case review. Setting: The surgery was conducted in Uppsala, Sweden. Patients: A co

OBJECTIVE:

This study aimed to describe the consequences of acoustic neuroma surgery in terms of symptoms and quality of life.

STUDY DESIGN:

This study was a retrospective case review.

SETTING:

The surgery was conducted in Uppsala, Sweden.

PATIENTS:

A consecutive sample of acoustic neuroma patients operated on between 1988 and 1994.

INTERVENTION:

All patients had been operated on with the translabyrinthine technique.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES:

A questionnaire was constructed including questions about the surgery and symptoms. The House and Brackmann scale was used for grading facial function and the Brackmann and Bars scale was used for self-assessment of facial function.

RESULTS:

Follow-up data were collected by a postal questionnaire sent out and returned by 141 patients, which yielded a 90% response rate. Normal to moderately impaired facial function (House I-III) was evident in 85.2% of patients, although residual facial problems were reported. Most considered hearing to be worse after surgery (80%), and tinnitus was found in 60% of the sample. Balance problems (45%), dizziness (19%), and headache/pain (22%) were also reported. Work ability was affected in 23%, and 37% reported a continued need for medical consultations, mainly because of facial problems and pain. Most (89%) were pleased with the preoperative information.

CONCLUSIONS:

This study showed that few patients with acoustic neuroma had experienced negative social consequences after surgery. Although not linked to the operation, residual symptoms were reported that may necessitate further rehabilitation.

Nineteen elderly hearing impaired subjects participated in an experimental treatment study and received either behavioural hearing tactics or served as untreated controls. Treatment was supplied in the form of a self-help treatment manual supplied with t

A group of patients diagnosed as typical Menière's disease patients (N=26) completed measures of dysphoria, optimism, confidence in everyday activities and daily assessed symptoms of the disease. Dysphoria was measured by the Beck Depression Inventory (BD

Meniere's disease is an inner ear disease in which the symptom cluster of hearing loss, tinnitus, and dizziness is found along with attacks of vertigo and nausea. In this study: 20 subjects diagnosed with Meniere's disease completed daily measures of str

Tinnitus is the perception of sound in the absence of any appropriate external stimulus. Based on the clinical observation that tinnitus patients may distract themselves from their sounds, we performed an experimental test on the effects of suppressing thoughts about tinnitus with 45 tinnitus patients, to systematically evaluate the immediate consequences of suppressing thought vs. attending to tinnitus. Suppression instructions tended to lead to a subsequent decrease in tinnitus-related thoughts, whereas attention to tinnitus resulted in an increase in such thoughts. No effects were seen in a control group who neither suppressed nor attended to their tinnitus. In an independent positron emission tomography study of cerebral blood flow with 8 patients we found that silent backward counting ('serial sevens test') led to a decrease in neural activity in auditory cortex, as well as perceived decrease of tinnitus loudness and annoyance. Thus, distraction that altered the tinnitus experience seemed to attenuate auditory cortex activity.

The purpose of this investigation was to study the effects of translabyrinthine acoustic neuroma surgery on tinnitus in a consecutive sample of patients operated on between 1988 and 1994 in Uppsala (Sweden). A postal questionnaire was returned by 141 pat

The purpose of this investigation was to study the effects of translabyrinthine acoustic neuroma surgery on tinnitus in a consecutive sample of patients operated on between 1988 and 1994 in Uppsala (Sweden). A postal questionnaire was returned by 141 patients, yielding a 90% response rate without reminder. The results showed that tinnitus was experienced by 70% of the patients before surgery and 60% after surgery. In general, low degrees of tinnitus distress were found, which was confirmed by the questionnaire results. Ratings of tinnitus distress after surgery, using the Klockhoff and Lindblom grading system, showed that 48% had tinnitus of grade I, 46% of grade II, and 6% of grade III. Pre- and postsurgery grading of distress did not change significantly. There was a 35% risk for developing tinnitus when no preoperative tinnitus was present and a 15% chance that tinnitus disappears when present preoperatively.

Tinnitus is a symptom that may cause psychological distress. We report here on the successful treatment of stress-related tinnitus in a patient with otosclerosis (an ear disease). The patient experienced stress-induced attacks during which tinnitus becam

Meta-analysis is a technique of combining results from different trials in order to obtain estimates of effects across studies. Meta-analysis has yet rarely been used in audiological research. The aim of this paper was to conduct a meta-analysis on psycho

Degrees of tinnitus distress were explored in a sample of 216 patients who completed audiological measures and were assessed in a structured interview conducted by a clinical psychologist. The Klockhoff and Lindblom grading system was used and its inter-

In audiological medicine, the problems of hearing loss and tinnitus (ringing or buzzing in the ear) sometimes lead to psychological problems for the patients, This paper describes these conditions and the contribution of clinical psychology to their mana

In this study 30 patients with annoying tinnitus completed tinnitus matchings and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). A cluster analysis revealed three clusters of patients. Cluster one had relatively low depression and average results on tinnitus pa

Little is known about the coping behaviors associated with hearing impairment. In this study, 24 elderly hearing-impaired participants participated in a structured video interview including communication faults (provocations) presented in association wit

Background: Guided Internet-based cognitive behavior therapy (ICBT) has been tested in many trials and found to be effective in the treatment of anxiety and mood disorders. Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) has also been treated with ICBT, but there are no controlled trials on guided Internet-based psychodynamic treatment (IPDT). Since there is preliminary support for psychodynamic treatment for GAD, we decided to test if a psychodynamically informed self-help treatment could be delivered via the Internet. The aim of the study was to investigate the efficacy of IPDT for GAD and to compare against ICBT and a waiting list control group. Method: A randomized controlled superiority trial with individuals diagnosed with GAD comparing guided ICBT (n = 27) and IPDT (n = 27) against a no treatment waiting list control group (n = 27). The primary outcome measure was the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Results: While there were no significant between-group differences immediately after treatment on the main outcome measure, both IPDT and ICBT resulted in improvements with moderate to large within-group effect sizes at 3 and 18 months follow-up on the primary measure in the completer analyses. The differences against the control group, although smaller, were still significant for both PDT and CBT when conforming to the criteria of clinically significant improvement. The active treatments did not differ significantly. There was a significant group by time interaction regarding GAD symptoms, but not immediately after treatment. Conclusions: IPDT and ICBT both led to modest symptom reduction in GAD, and more research is needed. Copyright (C) 2012 S. Karger AG, Basel

Guided internet-delivered cognitive behaviour therapy (ICBT) has been found to be effective in several controlled trials, but the mechanisms of change are largely unknown. Therapeutic alliance is a factor that has been studied in many psychotherapy trials, but the role of therapeutic alliance in ICBT is less well known. The present study investigated early alliance ratings in three separate samples. Participants from one sample of depressed individuals (N = 49), one sample of individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (N = 35), and one sample with social anxiety disorder (N = 90) completed the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI) modified for ICBT early in the treatment (weeks 3-4) when they took part in guided ICBT for their conditions. Results showed that alliance ratings were high in all three samples and that the WAI including the subscales of Task, Goal and Bond had high internal consistencies. Overall, correlations between the WAI and residualized change scores on the primary outcome measures were small and not statistically significant. We conclude that even if alliance ratings are in line with face-to-face studies, therapeutic alliance as measured by the WAI is probably less important in ICBT than in regular face-to-face psychotherapy.

The aim of this study was to collect follow-up data on social competence and behavioural problems in a sample of Swedish burned children and to compare the results with normative data from a reference group of children comparable in age, socio-economic status and gender. Parents of 44 children (55% response rate) aged 7-12 years were asked to complete a questionnaire booklet including the Children's Behaviour Questionnaire (CBQ) and the Social Competence Inventory (SCI). Data from the children's teachers were also collected for 20 children using the same booklet. In addition, data on TBSA, localisation of injury, and other background factors were collected. Results showed that the burned children were rated by their parents as showing lesser degrees of social initiative and more externalising problems and concentration problems compared with the control group. Teachers rated the burn injured children as having less prosocial orientation, more externalising problems, and more concentration problems. No clear effects were found for gender and characteristics of the burn injury. Results on the Social Competence Inventory were associated with scores on the Children's Behaviour Questionnaire.The findings are consistent with previous research in that the differences found were relatively small. However, they do call for attention to the possible adverse effects of growing up with a burn injury, but also to the possible pre-morbid characteristics that may be related to the injury.

Objective: The purpose of the study was to investigate future thinking in a group of tinnitus patients. It was predicted that participants in the tinnitus group would report fewer positive future events. Methods: A cross-sectional design was used. Two groups of participants completed the test session: tinnitus patients (n=20) and healthy controls (n=20) without tinnitus. Participants completed measures of anticipation of future positive and negative experiences, anxiety and depression. In addition, participants with tinnitus completed a test of tinnitus annoyance. Results: Tinnitus participants generated a greater number of negative future events compared to the controls. There was no difference between the groups on positive future events or on self-reported anxiety, but the tinnitus group scored higher on a depression measure. Controlling for depression scores removed the group difference. Conclusions: While the groups differed on future thinking, the difference concerned negative events, which suggests that anxious information processing might be important in explaining tinnitus annoyance. Levels of depressive symptoms should, however, be considered.

In this study, the authors compared guided Internet-delivered self-help with one-session exposure treatment (OST) in a sample of snake phobic patients. A total of 30 patients were included following a screening on the Internet and a structured clinical interview. The Internet treatment consisted of four weekly text modules which were presented on a web page, a video in which exposure was modelled, and support provided via Internet. The OST was delivered in a three-hour session following a brief orientation session. The main outcome was the behavioural approach test (BAT), and as secondary measures questionnaires measuring anxiety symptoms and depression were used. Results showed that the groups did not differ at post-treatment or follow-up, with the exception of a significant interaction for the BAT in favour of the OST. At post-treatment, 61.5% of the Internet group and 84.6% of the OST group achieved a clinically significant improvement on the BAT. At follow-up, the corresponding figures were 90% for the Internet group and 100% for the OST group (completer sample). Within-group effect sizes for the Snake Phobia Questionnaire were large (d=1.63 and d=2.31 for the Internet and OST groups, respectively, at post-treatment). It is concluded that guided Internet-delivered exposure treatment is a potential treatment option in the treatment of snake phobia, but that OST probably is better.

The authors compared guided Internet-delivered self-help with one session of live-exposure treatment in a sample of spider-phobic patients. A total of 30 patients were included following screening on the Internet and a structured clinical interview. The Internet treatment consisted of five weekly text modules, which were presented on a web page, a video in which exposure was modelled, and support provided via Internet. The live-exposure treatment was delivered in a 3-hr session following a brief orientation session. The main outcome measure was the behavioural approach test (BAT), and as secondary measures the authors used questionnaires measuring anxiety symptoms and depression. Results showed that the groups did not differ at posttreatment or follow-up, with the exception of the proportion showing clinically significant change on the BAT. At posttreatment 46.2% of the Internet group and 85.7% in the live-exposure group achieved this change. At follow-up the corresponding figures were 66.7% for the Internet group and 72.7% for the live treatment. Within-group effect sizes for the spider phobia questionnaire were large (d = 1.84 and 2.58 for the Internet and live-exposure groups, respectively, at posttreatment). The authors conclude that guided Internet-delivered exposure treatment is a promising new approach in the treatment of spider phobia.

Dizziness is a distressing symptom that is often associated with fear and anxiety, as well as organic balance system dysfunction. We report here on the successful treatment of a 68 year old woman with dizziness and balance problems. Treatment was given wi

Objective: This study aimed to examine interference between mental activity and control of balance. Study Design: In a mixed design, dual-task study, the performance of patients and healthy control subjects was compared on computerized dynamic posturogra

Perception is a fundamental function because it allows organisms to be in contact with the environment and adjust to environmental conditions. Humans also possess higher intellectual functions, which allow for elaborate handling of perceptually obtained information. The thesis concerns a distinction between an inferential ("cognitive") mode and a (direct-)perceptual mode of apprehension, and a notion of perceptual skill acquisition as a transition from the inferential to the perceptual mode. The mode distinction and the mode-transition model was formulated by Runeson, Juslin, and Olsson (2000) within the ecological direct-perception framework (Gibson, 1966, 1979).

The modes of apprehension were investigated in an experimental paradigm that concerned visual perception of the relative mass of two colliding objects. The relative mass is specified by an optical variable in the collision movement pattern, which observers may pick up while functioning in the perceptual mode. However, novices often rely on other, nonspecifying, optical variables that may constitute cues that are used in the inferential mode (Runeson et al., 2000).

Four tentative mode indicators were employed: participants' realism of confidence, introspective mode reports, amplitudes of brain event-related potentials, and response times. Generally, the results did not support the mode-transition model of skill acquisition. Furthermore, results suggested that reliance both on the specifying and nonspecifying variables might have occurred either in the inferential or in the perceptual mode. However, the mode indicators may not have captured mode as intended. For instance, the discriminability of used optical variables, and not the mode of apprehension, may have affected both amplitudes of event-related potentials and mode reports.

It is argued that the mode-transition model and the distinction between two modes of apprehension should be further investigated employing other methodologies, and, furthermore, that the mode distinction has a place within an ecological framework.

In visual judgments of relative mass of colliding objects observers may function in either a perceptual or an inferential mode of apprehension (Runeson, Juslin, & Olsson, 2000). This finding was based on participants’ over/underconfidence in their judgments. Also phenomenological mode reports, for which participants indicated whether they “saw” or “inferred” the relative mass in each trial, have been used as mode indicators (Andersson, Kreegipuu, Allik, & Runeson, 2009). The present study showed that over/underconfidence and mode reports are not congruent as mode indicators: in Experiments 1 and 2, participants’ over/ underconfidence was about the same in “saw” and “inferred” trials. Furthermore, in Experiment 3, unexpectedly judgments of relative exit-speed did not engender underconfidence. Hence, one or both indicators do not well enough distinguish the modes of apprehension.

In dynamic event perception, one issue is whether direct perception or cue-based inferences explains learning and performance. For visual discrimination of relative mass of colliding objects, Runeson, Juslin, and Olsson (2000) found that observers change from an inferential to a direct-perceptual mode of apprehension during practice, as indicated by lower confidence in their judgments. Unlike Runeson et al. (2000), we scored confidence against the variables used in individual blocks and analyzed collision-subsets, thereby counteracting inflated confidence scores. A majority of 40 novice participants used a nonspecifying variable and functioned inferentially, as indicated by realistic confidence. Five novices used the mass-ratio invariant and were overconfident therein. Ten participants received feedback based on the most-used nonspecifying variable. Despite feedback suggesting specificity of the variable, they continued to use the variable inferentially. After practice based on the invariant, 7 out of 10 used the invariant. An unexpected  dearth of underconfidence for invariant usage is explained by fluctuations in variable usage. Methodological problems in the use of confidence as a mode indicator are discussed.

Tidigare forskning visar ett starkt samband mellan nedsatta exekutiva funktioner (EF) och uppvisande av ADHD- och ODD-symtom (Nigg, 2017). I denna studie undersöktes sambandet mellan EF-komponenterna inhibition och arbetsminne och ADHD- & ODD-symtom, om inhibition och arbetsminne är specifikt relaterade till ADHD eller ODD samt hur korrelationen mellan de exekutiva funktionerna och skolresultat ser ut. En longitudinell studie med 124 deltagare genomfördes där flertalet tester utfördes samt föräldrar- och lärarskattningar samlades in. Deras exekutiva funktioner testades vid 48 månaders ålder och deras ADHD-/ODD-symtom och skolprestation skattades vid 108 månaders ålder. Data från studien analyserades med hjälp av multipel regressionsanalys och korrelationsanalyser i SPSS. Resultaten visade negativ men inte statistisk signifikant korrelation mellan exekutiva funktioner och ADHD (r_s = -.23) respektive ODD (r_s= -.25). Vidare visade resultaten att exekutiva funktioner i större utsträckning kan predicera ADHD (R² = .4) jämfört med ODD (R² = .4) samt en icke-signifikant, svagt positiv korrelation mellan exekutiva funktioner och skolprestation i svenska och matematik (r_s = .27). Resultaten är inte statistiskt signifkanta men ligger i linje med vad som kan förväntas utifrån tidigare forskning. 

The purpose of this study is to investigate the internal structure of behavioural inhibition [cf. Goldsmith, H.H. and Campos, J.J. (1990). Child Development, 61, 1944-1964]. Observations of 45 2-year-olds' approaching/positive reactions, inhibited/negativ

The present thesis considers different aspects of infants' and children's reactions to novelties, that is, unfamiliar persons, objects, and situations. In Study I, the developmental phenomenon stranger wariness was investigated from a temperamental perspective. Stranger wariness at age 10 months was found to be marginally predicted by 5-month individual variation in reactions to frustration, to sensory stimulation, and to novelties and to be predictive of 2-year social inhibition. These results indicate that 10-month stranger wariness does not only reflect a developmental transition but also an individual disposition to be responsive to social novelties.

In line with what has been suggested for the behavioral inhibition construct, Study II showed that 2-year-olds' reactions to social and non-social novelties should be considered as belonging to one construct. Furthermore, the relations within and between latency, negative/inhibited and positive/approaching reactions to social and non-social novelties were found to be very similar, implying that identifying children as uninhibited means that they are disposed not only towards lack of negative/inhibited reactions, but also towards approaching/positive reactions when confronted with novelties.

Study III concerned preschool social inhibition in relation to attachment security and social experiences in terms non-parental care. The relative contributions of the three variables to school-age social competence with peers and social self-esteem were also investigated. It was found that attachment security and social inhibition were unrelated to each other and that they made significant independent contributions to the explanation of social competence, whereas social self-esteem was only predicted by preschool social inhibition.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the internal structure of behavioural inhibition (cf. Goldsmith, H.H. and Campos, J.J., 1990) . Observations of 45 2-year-olds’ approaching/positive reactions, inhibited/negative reactions, and latencies, when e

Forty-five infants were followed from age 5 months to 25 months with the aim of studying the stranger wariness phenomenon from a temperamental perspective. Observations and heart rate reactions in a standardized situation of stranger approach, as well as

The overall aim of this thesis was to examine aspects of self-regulation and the emergence of co-occurring autism and ADHD traits early in life, to enhance our understanding of specific and shared mechanisms underlying these conditions. Previous studies have shown that vulnerabilities in temperament and executive functions (EF) are closely related to both conditions, with overlapping as well as specific features associated to each phenotype. However, most previous studies focus on older children, and it is unclear if specific and shared markers are evident already before symptoms of autism and ADHD emerge. By using an infant-sibling design we were able to follow infants with a family history of autism and/or ADHD, before clinical symptoms emerge.  Study I and II focused on infant temperament as either predictors of later autistic and/or ADHD traits or as being predicted by familial quantitative traits, to understand specific and shared associations to autistic and ADHD traits. In Study I, we examined if temperament traits in 1.5-year olds predict autism and ADHD traits at 3 years. Parent-rated temperament showed specific associations to autistic or ADHD traits, respectively. We found some overlap in regulation difficulties across both trait domains. In Study II, we explored the possibility to use probands’ autistic and ADHD traits to predict temperament traits in their 10-month old infant siblings (a between-individual design). We found that higher levels of probands’ autistic symptoms were specifically associated to lower levels of infant sibling’s approach, whereas higher levels of proband’s ADHD symptoms were specifically associated to increased activity levels in the infant siblings. Proband autism and ADHD traits thus provide unique information about the infant siblings’ temperament. Study III focused on specific and shared links between executive functions and deferred gratification and concurrent associations to autistic traits, ADHD traits, and adaptive behaviors in 3-year-olds. We found that deferred gratification may function as a protective factor, moderating autistic traits and adaptive behaviors and thus act as a buffer for adaptive behaviors Together, these studies contribute to our understanding of specific and shared early aspects of self-regulation and their associations to autistic and/or ADHD traits.

Background: Children with ASD and/or ADHD often struggle with tasks that demand executive functioning (EF) and deferred gratification. However, whether children with a family history of ASD and/or ADHD differ on these types of tasks in comparison to peers with a family history of typical likelihood is not known. In addition, little is known about the specificity of these domains in relation to autistic traits, ADHD traits and adaptive behaviors early in life and whether deferred gratification and strong EF skills may function as protective factors in the trait-adaptive behaviour association.

Methods:  A total of 77 infant siblings at 3 years of age participated in the study and we examined the effect of type of family history -FH-ASD, FH-ASD/ADHD and family history of typical likelihood FH-TL- on EF performance, deferred gratification skills and adaptive behaviors, as well as specific and shared associations, including moderation effects. Measures included behavioral lab-tasks (common EF and deferred gratification), parent-rated adaptive behavior using VABS, and clinician ratings using ADOS-2 (autistic symptoms) and ADHD DSM-5 Rating Scale (ADHD RS). 

Results: Lower levels of deferred gratification was specifically related to adaptive behavior, while lower level performance on common EF was specific for ADHD traits and adaptive behavior. Finally, deferred gratification moderated the association between autistic symptoms and adaptive behavior, in that stronger ability to defer gratification attenuated the association between autistic traits and adaptive functions. 

Conclusions: In terms of specificity, we found unique associations between deferred gratification and autistic traits, and between common EF and ADHD traits. Finally, the results are in line with the idea that strong EF may act as a protective factor for children with an elevated likelihood of ASD and/or ADHD. However, our findings point at more affective than cognitive aspects of EF as particularly important for attenuating the association between autistic traits and adaptive behaviors. 

Judging two events in combination (A&B) as more probable than one of the events (A) is known as a conjunction fallacy. According to dual-process explanations of human judgment and decision making, the fallacy is due to the application of a heuristic, associative cognitive process. Avoiding the fallacy has been suggested to require the recruitment of a separate process that can apply normative rules. We investigated these assumptions using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during conjunction tasks. Judgments, whether correct or not, engaged a network of brain regions identical to that engaged during similarity judgments. Avoidance of the conjunction fallacy additionally, and uniquely, involved a fronto-parietal network previously linked to supervisory, analytic control processes. The results lend credibility to the idea that incorrect probability judgments are the result of a representativeness heuristic that requires additional neurocognitive resources to avoid.

Såväl immitation som prosocialt beteende är av betydelse för späd- och småbarns interaktion med andra. Tidigare studier har funnit samband mellan småbarns imitation och prosociala beteenden, men få studier har studerat sambandet mellan småbarns imitation och delande, en underkategori till prosocialt beteende. Studiens syfte var att få en förståelse kring småbarns imitation och delande. Frågeställningen var "Finns det ett samband mellan 14 månader gamla småbarns imitation och delande?", med hypotesen att det fanns en positiv korrelation mellan imitation och delande. Utifrån videomaterial där 14 månader gamla småbarn (n=22) utförde rytmiska uppgifter och lekte fritt kodades andel tid som småbarnet imiterade och antal försök till delande som småbarnet gjorde. Studiens data analyserades med Spearman's rangkorrlationskoefficient. Studien fann inga signifikanta korrelationer mellan imitation och delande. Studiens resultat diskuterades i förhållande till tidigare forskning, studiens begränsningar diskuteras och förslag på framtida forskning ges.